Chemical functionalization of solid-state nanopores and nanopore arrays and applications thereof

ABSTRACT

Chemical functionalization of solid-state nanopores and nanopore arrays and applications thereof. Nanopores are extremely sensitive single-molecule sensors. Recently, electron beams have been used to fabricate synthetic nanopores in thin solid-state membranes with sub-nanometer resolution. A new class of chemically modified nanopore sensors are provided with two approaches for monolayer coating of nanopores by: (1) self-assembly from solution, in which nanopores −10 nm diameter can be reproducibly coated, and (2) self-assembly under voltage-driven electrolyte flow, in which 5 nm nanopores may be coated. Applications of chemically modified nanopore are provided including: the detection of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA; immobilizing enzymes or other proteins for detection or for generating chemical gradients; and localized pH sensing.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to each of thefollowing applications, the entire contents of which are hereinincorporated by reference:

U.S. Provisional Appl. No. 60/928,160, filed May 8, 2007, entitledChemical Functionalization of Solid-State Nanopores and Nanopore Arraysand Applications Thereof;

U.S. Provisional Appl. No. 60/928,260, filed May 8, 2007, entitledChemical Functionalization of Solid-State Nanopores and Nanopore Arraysand Applications Thereof, and

U.S. Provisional Appl. No. 60/928,158, filed May 8, 2007, entitledChemical Functionalization of Solid-State Nanopores and Nanopore Arraysand Applications Thereof.

This application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.TBD, filed on date even herewith, entitled Chemical Functionalization ofSolid-State Nanopores and Nanopore Arrays and Applications Thereof theentire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

This invention was made with Government Support under Contract No.PHY-0403891 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

1. Technical Field

The present invention relates to chemical functionalization ofsolid-state nanopores and nanopore arrays, methods of forming chemicallymodified solid-state nanopores and applications thereof.

2. Discussion of Related Art

Nanopores, pores of nanometer dimensions in an electrically insulatingmembrane, have shown promise for use in a variety of sensingapplications, including single molecule detectors. The nanopores used insuch applications can be biological protein channels in a lipid bilayeror a pores in a solid-state membrane. Solid-state nanopores aregenerally made in silicon compound membranes, one of the most commonbeing silicon nitride. Solid-state nanopores can be manufactured withseveral techniques including ion-beam sculpting of silicon nitride andusing a-beam lithography and wet etching in crystalline silicon followedby oxidation.

There also has been recent demonstration (Golovchenko's group in theHarvard Physics Department) of a reliable nano sculpting approach formaking single nanopores of 1.5 nm in diameter in silicon-nitridesolid-state membranes. In this approach, the processing steps employingfocused ion beam lithography and low energy sputtering with feedbackmonitoring are highly reproducible and reliable. However, thesenanopores are still too long (>10 nm) for use in measuring singlenucleotides (see: J. Li, D Stein, C McMullan, D Branton, M. J. Aziz andJ. A. Golovchenko; Ion-Beam sculpting at nanometer length scales, Nature412, 166-169 (2001), the entire contents of which are hereinincorporated by reference).

The use of nanopores in single-molecule detection employs a detectionprinciple based on monitoring the ionic current of an electrolytesolution passing through the nanopore as a voltage is applied across themembrane. When the nanopore is of molecular dimensions, passage ofmolecules causes interruptions in the open pore current level. Thetemporal variation in current levels leads to a translocation eventpulse. These detection methods are described at length in: Kasianowicz JJ, Brandin E, Branton D, Deamer D W (1996) Characterization ofindividual polynucleotide molecules using a membrane channel. Proc NatAcad Sci 93:13770-13773; Akeson, M, Branton, D, Kasianowicz J, Brandin Eand Deamer D, (1999) Biophys. J. 77: 3227-3233; Meller A, Nivon L,Brandin E, Golovchenko J, Branton D, (2000) Proc Nat Acad Sci 97:1079-1084, all of which are herein incorporated by reference in theirentireties.

Nanopore detection techniques have been used for biomolecule detection.For example, various nanopore sequencing methods have been proposed. In1994, Bezrukov, Vodyanoy and Parsegian showed that one can use abiological nanopore as a Coulter counter to count individual molecules(Counting polymers moving through a single ion channel, Nature 370,279-281 (1994) incorporated, herein, by reference). In 1996,Kasianowicz, Brandin, Branton and Deamer proposed an ambitious idea forultrafast single-molecule sequencing of single-stranded DNA moleculesusing nanopore ionic conductance as a sensing mechanism(Characterization of individual polynucleotide molecules using amembrane channel, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 93 13770-13773 (1996),incorporated herein by reference). Since then, several groups haveexplored the potential of α-hemolysin protein pore as a possiblecandidate for achieving this objective. (See, for example: Akeson, M,Branton, D, Kasianowicz J, Brandin E and Deamer D, (1999) Biophys. J.77: 3227-3233; Meller A, Nivon L, Brandin E, Golovchenko J, Branton D,(2000) Proc Nat Acad Sci 97: 1079-1084; Braha, O.; Gu, L. Q.; Zhou, L.;Lu, X.; Cheley, S.; Bayley, H. Nat. Biotech. 2000; Meller A. Nivon L,and Branton, D. (2001) Phys. Rev. Lett. 86:3435-3438; Meller A, andBranton D. (2002) Electrophoresis, 23:2583-2591; Bates M, Burns M, andMeller A (2003) Biophys. J. 84:2366-2372; Zwolak M, Di Ventra M (2007).Rev Mod Phys 80:141-165, each of which is herein incorporated byreference in its entirety.) The methods seek to effectively determinethe order in which nucleotides occur on a DNA strand (or RNA). Thetheory behind nanopore sequencing concerns observed behavior when thenanopore is immersed in a conducting fluid and a potential (voltage) isapplied across it. Under these conditions an electrical current thatresults from the conduction of ions through the nanopore can beobserved. The amount of current which flows is sensitive to the size ofthe nanopore. When a biomolecule passes through the nanopore, it willtypically create a change in the magnitude of the current flowingthrough the nanopore. Electronic sensing techniques are used to detectthe ion current variations, thereby sensing the presence of thebiomolecules.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,428,959, the entire contents of which are hereinincorporated by reference, describes methods for determining thepresence of double-stranded nucleic acids in a sample. In the methodsdescribed, nucleic acids present in a fluid sample are translocatedthrough a nanopore, e.g., by application of an electric field to thefluid sample. The current amplitude through the nanopore is monitoredduring the translocation process and changes in the amplitude arerelated to the passage of single- or double-stranded molecules throughthe nanopore. Those methods find use in a variety of applications inwhich the detection of the presence of double-stranded nucleic acids ina sample is desired.

There are numerous challenges to develop effective nanopore detectiontechniques. Control of nanopore surface characteristics presents anobstacle to nanopore use in detection applications. Without refinedcontrol over the nanopore characteristics, nanopore detection apparatuscannot be constructed to be selectively sensitive to desired moleculesor environmental alterations. It would be desirable to providesolid-state nanopores with surface characteristics that can beselectively modified to enable specific uses in detection and sensingapplications.

SUMMARY

The present invention relates to chemical functionalization ofsolid-state nanopores and nanopore arrays, methods of forming chemicallymodified solid-state nanopores and applications thereof.

According to one embodiment of the invention, a coated nanopore includesa solid-state insulating membrane having a thickness betweenapproximately 5 nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers. Themembrane has an aperture with at least one surface with chemical coatingdisposed on the surface. The chemical coating modifies at least onesurface characteristic of the aperture.

Under another aspect of the invention, the solid state insulatingmembrane includes a silicon nitride material.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating disposed onthe surface of the aperture includes a layer substantially conformal tothe surface of the aperture.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating has aselected thickness and distribution.

Under another aspect of the invention, the selected thickness may beless than or equal to approximately 2.5 nanometers.

Under another aspect of the invention, the surface characteristicincludes at least one of concavity, surface charge, polarity, pHsensitivity, hydrophobicity, and chemical functionality.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating includes anorganic monolayer coating.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating includes oneof an epoxy, a methoxyethylene glycol, an amine, a carboxylic acid, andan aldehyde.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating includes amethoxyethelyne glycol-terminated silane monolayer.

Under another aspect of the invention, the organic monolayer coatingincludes a reactive monolayer forming covalent bonds with the surface ofthe aperture.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating includes asubstantially uniform layer of chain molecules including organosilanes.

According to another embodiment of the invention, anelectrically-addressable nanopore array includes a solid-stateinsulating membrane having a thickness between approximately 5nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers. A plurality of nanoporesare formed in the membrane, each nanopore having a surface. A pluralityof electrodes are disposed adjacent to the plurality of nanopores. Achemical coating is disposed on the surface of each nanopore, thechemical coating modifying a surface characteristic of the nanopore. Theplurality of electrodes selectively address each nanopore in the arrayto detect changes in electrical stimulus at each nanopore in the array.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating disposed onthe surface of each nanopore is selected to detect ions.

According to another embodiment of the invention, anoptically-addressable nanopore array includes a solid-state insulatingmembrane having a thickness between approximately 5 nanometers andapproximately 100 nanometers. A plurality of nanopores are formed in themembrane, each nanopore having a surface. A plurality of electrodes aredisposed adjacent to the plurality of nanopores. A chemical coating isdisposed on the surface of each nanopore, the chemical coating modifyinga surface characteristic of the nanopore. The plurality of opticalsensors selectively address each nanopore in the array to detect energyemission variations at each nanopore in the array.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating disposed onthe surface of each nanopore includes a pH-sensitive dye such as afluorophore.

According to another embodiment of the invention, a method of making acoated solid-state nanopore includes fabricating a nanoscale aperture ina solid-state substrate, cleaning a surface of the aperture, andchemically modifying the surface of the aperture to fabricate a chemicalcoating. The chemical coating is substantially conformally disposed onthe surface. The coated solid-state nanopore is fabricated with achemical coating of a selected composition and distribution.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the aperture comprises a sequence of chemical coating steps.

Under another aspect of the invention, the sequence of chemical coatingsteps includes for each coating step, immersing in solution, drying, andheating the solid-state substrate.

Under another aspect of the invention, each coating step includes an exsitu chemical process.

Under another aspect of the invention, the sequence of chemical coatingsteps includes, for each coating step, exposing the aperture to asequence of chemical solutions, each chemical solution in the sequencehaving a selected composition.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the aperture includes an in situ coating process in which variationsin current adjacent to the aperture are monitored while the aperturesurface is chemically modified.

Under another aspect of the invention, the nanoscale aperture includesan aperture having a diameter less than or equal to approximately 10nanometers.

Under another aspect of the invention, cleaning the surface of theaperture includes treating the surface with a piranha solution.

Under another aspect of the invention, the method further includescharacterizing the coating to detect the selected concentration anddistribution.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceincludes coating with at least one of epoxy, methoxyethylene glycol,amine, carboxylic acid, and aldehyde.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceincludes coating with at least one of glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane,methoxyethoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,adipoyl chloride, 1,4-diaminobutane, and glutaraldehyde.

According to another embodiment of the invention, a method forcharacterizing an analyte includes forming a nanopore in a solid-statemembrane having a thickness between approximately 5 nanometers andapproximately 100 nanometers, chemically modifying a surface of thenanopore, receiving the analyte through the nanopore, and detectingvariations in current adjacent to the nanopore. The variations incurrent correspond to interactions between the analyte and nanoporesurface.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore comprises tuning the interaction between the analyte andthe nanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore comprises coating the nanopore with a substantiallyuniform layer of short chain molecules including organosilanes.

Under another aspect of the invention, the analyte includes abiopolymer.

Under another aspect of the invention, the biopolymer includes one ofsingle-stranded DNA, double-stranded DNA, RNA, and a nucleic acidpolypeptide.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore includes providing a chemical coating to substantiallyslow DNA translocation.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore includes providing a chemical coating to substantiallyprevent sticking between the biopolymer and the surface of the nanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, the nanopore dimensions areselected to substantially slow DNA translocation.

Under another aspect of the invention, detecting variations in currentincludes detecting variations in local ion current with electrodesdisposed adjacent to the nanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, detecting variations in local ioncurrent comprises detecting an open nanopore current and a blockednanopore current, the blocked nanopore current varying with respect toanalyte-coated nanopore interaction characteristics.

Under another aspect of the invention, the analyte includes a DNA andthe blocked nanopore current varies with respect to DNA length.

According to another embodiment of the invention, a method ofidentifying a biomolecule includes modifying a surface of a nanoporewith a chemical coating, immobilizing the biomolecule on the surface ofthe nanopore, exposing the nanopore to a chemical environment, anddetecting variations in current adjacent to the nanopore. The variationsin current correspond to interactions between the biomolecule and thechemical environment. Selected interactions identify the biomolecule.

Under another aspect of the invention, immobilizing the biomoleculeincludes chemically grafting the molecule in a central portion of thenanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, modifying the surface with thechemical coating includes providing a glutaraldehyde-functionalizednanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, modifying the surface with thechemical coating includes providing an organic monolayer coating.

Under another aspect of the invention, the organic monolayer coatingincludes a reactive monolayer forming covalent bonds with the surface ofthe aperture.

Under another aspect of the invention, exposing the nanopore to achemical environment includes providing a chemical gradient having afirst chemical environment on a first side of the nanopore and a secondchemical environment on a second side of the nanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, immobilizing the biomoleculeincludes providing a selective transport path between the first andsecond chemical environments.

Under another aspect of the invention, the molecule includes a beta-poreforming protein including a single α-hemolysin channel an a α-hemolysinchannel mutant. The chemical coating comprises a methoxyethelyneglycol-terminated silane monolayer.

Under another aspect of the invention, the chemical coating comprises analdehyde reactive terminal layer.

According to another aspect of the invention, a method of sensing achemical environmental includes forming a nanopore in a solid-statemembrane, the membrane having an thickness between approximately 5nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers. The method includeschemically modifying a surface of the nanopore, exposing the nanopore toa chemical environment, applying a voltage to at least a portion of thechemical environment in proximity to the membrane, and optically probingthe membrane to detect energy emission variations. Energy emissionvariations correspond to interactions between the chemical environmentand the surface of the nanopore.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore includes coating the surface with a pH-sensitive dye.

Under another aspect of the invention, the pH-sensitive dye includes oneof a fluorophore and a protein modulating group.

Under another aspect of the invention, variations in florescentintensity are detected such that variations in florescent intensitycorrespond to variations in the chemical environment.

Under another aspect of the invention, exposing the nanopore to achemical environment includes providing a chemical gradient having afirst chemical environment on a first side of the membrane and a secondchemical environment on a second side of the membrane.

According to another embodiment of the invention, a method of sensing achemical environmental includes forming a nanopore in a solid-statemembrane, the membrane having an thickness between approximately 5nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers. The method further includeschemically modifying a surface of the nanopore, exposing the nanopore toa chemical environment, applying a voltage to at least a portion of thechemical environment in proximity to the membrane, and detectingvariations in current adjacent to the nanopore. The variations incurrent correspond to interactions between the chemical environment andnanopore surface.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore includes coating the surface with a pH-sensitivemolecule.

Under another aspect of the invention, exposing the nanopore to achemical environment includes providing a chemical gradient having afirst chemical environment on a first side of the membrane and a secondchemical environment on a second side of the membrane.

Under another aspect of the invention, chemically modifying the surfaceof the nanopore includes coating the surface with a selectedion-sensitive compound.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the Drawings:

FIG. 1A illustrates a schematic picture of the nanopore device and chipcleaning, according to various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 1B illustrates two schemes for coating nanopores, the ex situmethod and the in situ method, respectively, according to variousembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 1C illustrates structures of the molecules used for variouscoatings.

FIG. 2 illustrates XPS spectra of bare SiN films on Si (top), and thesame substrates after coating with 1 (middle) and 3+4+5 (bottom),according to one embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3A illustrates bright-field TEM images of a 10 nm nanoporefollowing cleaning with piranha solution, according to one embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 3B illustrates on the Left: a TEM image of a 10 nm nanoporefollowing coating with various coatings, and on the Right: a TEM imageof the same pore after irradiation, according to one embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 4 illustrates a current-time trace for the in situ coating of a 5nm nanopore using aminosilane, according to one embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 5A illustrates current-time traces for the addition of a compoundwith functional silane monolayers to the cis chamber of a bare 10 nm (I)and amine-coated 12 nm nanopore (II), according to various embodimentsof the invention.

FIG. 5B illustrates a plot showing normalized change in the ion currentof nanopores coated with an aminosilane upon the addition ofgluteraldehyde to selected concentrations in the cis-chamber, accordingto various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 5C in the inset illustrates time constant (t) fitting results tofirst-order adsorption kinetics for the selected concentrations shown inFIG. 5B.

FIGS. 6A-6D illustrate I-V curves for coated and uncoated nanopores atindicated pH levels, according to various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 7A illustrates a schematic representation of the translocation ofbiopolymers through uncoated silicon nitride nanopores, according to oneembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7B illustrates a schematic representation of the translocation ofbiopolymers through polymerscan coated nanopores, according to oneembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7C illustrates a schematic representation of protein immobilizationinside a selectively coated nanopore, according to one embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 7D illustrates a schematic representation of protein immobilizationinside a selectively coated nanopore, according to one embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 8A illustrates a schematic view of a solid state nanopore devicefor probing DNA translocation dynamics, according to one embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 8B shows a plot of a typical ion current trace for a solid statenanopore device, according to one embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 illustrates histograms of blocked current levels, and insetsshowing TEM images of nanopores, according to various embodiments of theinvention.

FIG. 10 illustrates a plot of experimental current levels andtheoretical current levels for a series of nanopores with differentdiameters, according to one embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 11A-C illustrate plots of dwell-time distributions for differentDNA lengths, according to various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 12 illustrates a log-log plot and a semi-log plot of DNAtranslocation dynamics as a function of DNA length, according to oneembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13 illustrates a semi-log plot of the temperature dependence of thetranslocation times of various DNA lengths, according to one embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 14 illustrates a semi-log plot of DNA translocation timescales,according to one embodiment of the invention.

FIGS. 15 A-C illustrate schematic representations of proposedmechanisms, according to various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 16 illustrates schematic representations of a silicon nitride (SiN)solid-state nanopore coated with a self-assembled monolayer, forattachment of a α-Hemolysin channel, according to one embodiment of theinvention.

FIGS. 17 A-B illustrate plots of current-voltage curves for α-HLembedded in a PEG-coated solid-state nanopore, according to variousembodiments of the invention, as compared to a lipid-embedded α-HLchannel.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Introduction

The present invention features devices and systems embodying one or moresolid-state nanopores that can be used in a variety of sensing anddetection applications. The chemical modification of nanopores in thin,solid-state membranes through novel coating methods enables theseapplications. These applications include the characterization of singlemolecules, sequencing of DNA or RNA, pH sensing in an environment and,in certain cases, chemical transport. Nanoscale control over the surfaceproperties of nanopores can govern the nanopore's interactions withvarious substances and environments. The present application detailschemical functionalization of solid-state nanopores and applications ofcoated nanopores.

Techniques for the chemical functionalization of nanopores, describedbelow, have significant implications for the usefulness of thin,solid-state membranes in sensing and detection applications. Thesetechniques enable the integration of nanopore sensing apparatus in avariety of systems. In this specification, thin, solid-state membranesshould at least be understood to mean a thin layer of material having athickness ranging between approximately 5 nanometers and approximately100 nanometers and comprising an insulating (or semiconducting)inorganic compound, for example a Si-based material such as siliconoxide, silicon nitride, a mixture thereof, or various materials having ahighly viscous, glasslike behavior. Solid-state should be understood toencompass that group of materials typically defined as solid-state bythe semiconductor industry with regard to various electronicsapplications. Nanopores should be understood to entail apertures ofnanoscale dimensions formed in a membrane. In this specification, theaperture refers to a passage in a particular membrane, open to twoopposite sides of the membrane. The surface of the aperture should beunderstood to mean at least the exposed surface of the membrane formingaxially-oriented walls of the aperture. In this application,nanometer-scale indicates linear dimensions between 0 and approximately1,000 to 10,000 nanometers (nm). In this specification interactionsoutside the nanopore will be referred to as “DNA/membrane interactions”to distinguish them from “DNA/Nanopore interactions” inside thenanopore, although the chemical nature of the two forms of interactionsmay be similar.

The present invention relates to novel methods for chemically modifyingsolid-state nanopore surfaces, as well as the characterization ofchemically-modified nanopores. From a technical point of view, thechemical modification of highly concave surfaces, such as those found innanopores, is quite challenging. With curvatures approaching the lengthscale of the molecules (˜1 nm), nanopore surfaces are far more difficultto coat than planar surfaces. The difficulty can be attributed to avariety of sources. First, molecular arrangement on concave surfaces is,to date, unknown, in contrast to the well-studied order on planarsurfaces. Second, the number of molecules that can be bound to the areaof a single nanopore is low (approximately 100-1000), suggesting poorlayer quality. The present methods overcome these challenges,demonstrating stable nanopore coating.

Stable nanopore coating techniques (ex situ and in situ) provide usefulapplications of chemically-modified nanopores. Ex situ chemical coatingis a technique suitable for coating large-dimensioned solid-statenanopores (e.g. greater than approximately 10 nm diameter) characterizedby an incremental process wherein sequential coatings are applied instages. Each stage is typically separated by an imaging step to detectnanopore modification. In situ chemical coating is a technique forcoating solid-state nanopores characterized by monitoring the chemicalfunctionalization process as it proceeds and preventingsmall-dimensioned nanopores (less than approximately 10 nm in diameter)from clogging with the coating compound.

Nanopores are small holes (approximately 1-100 nm diameter) in apartition (“membrane”) whose thickness is of similar order. The membranedivides a volume into two separate compartments, each of which maycontain different types and/or concentrations of analytes. One or morepore(s) is the only passage between these two compartments. Whenelectrodes are placed in each compartment and a voltage is applied, anelectric field develops across the nanopore. The applied electric fieldacts as a force on charged molecules and ions inside the nanopore. Inthe case of nanopore-immobilized molecules (e.g., enzymes), thiselectric field may also induce structural changes, which may in turnmodulate their activity. Therefore, immobilization of proteins, enzymesor other forms of chemical functionalization at the nanopore junctureprovides possibilities which have not been achieved by theimmobilization of molecules on planar surfaces. Several applications,which are based on this property, are envisioned and described in detailbelow.

Nanopores have emerged in recent years as versatile single-moleculedetectors. The sensing principle is based on transient interruptions inthe ion-current of an electrolyte, induced by the entry, transport, andexit of a particular analyte from the pore. A distinguishing feature ofnanopores is that they can be used to analyze not only small molecules,but also long biopolymers, such as DNA and RNA, with resolution on theorder of the nanopore length (several nm). A well-studied systeminvolves the lipid-embedded α-hemolysin (α-HL) protein pore, which canaccommodate various types of biopolymers. α-HL has been used extensivelyto discriminate between DNA and RNA sequences, to study DNA unzippingkinetics, orientation of entry, DNA-protein interactions, and peptidetransport. An important outcome of these studies has been therealization that threaded biopolymer dynamics is governed by thebiopolymer's interactions with the nanopore walls. This notion has beenutilized for the detection of small molecules, metal-ions, and thediscrimination of enantiomer drugs, by employing molecular biologymethods to modify the α-HL nanopore. However, the range of sensingapplications using α-HL is limited by its fixed dimensions and thedelicate nature of a lipid membrane.

To expand the realm of nanopore sensing, synthetic nanopores haverecently been introduced using a variety of materials, such as polymers,glass, and thin solid-state membranes. (See: PCT Patent Publ. No.WO2004/078640A1, Methods and apparatus for controlled manufacturing ofnanometer-scale apertures, filed Mar. 5, 2003 by Storm et al., which isherein incorporated by reference in its entirety.) Such nanopores havedemonstrated utility for sensing single-stranded and double-strandedDNA, ions, macromolecules, and proteins. (See, for example, Fologea,Gershow, Ledden, McNabb, Golovchenko and Li, Detecting single strandedDNA with a solid state nanopore, NanoLetters Vol. 5, No. 10 1905-1909(2005), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.) Nanoporesincorporated in thin (˜10 nm) solid-state inorganic membranes are highlypromising materials, since the nanopore volume can be reduced to a fewnm in all dimensions, on par with biological membrane channels. Inaddition, the planar geometry permits high-resolution fabrication andcharacterization using the transmission electron microscope (TEM), asexemplified by sub-nm size control for nanopores down to 1 nm diameters.Further, the fabrication of high-density nanopore arrays is possible,setting the stage for high-throughput biomolecular analysis, inparticular ultra-fast DNA sequencing.

Coated nanopores in thin (˜10 nm) solid-state inorganic membranes enablea broad range of nanopore sensing applications. The coating techniquesdescribed below permit highly refined control over the surfacecharacteristics of each nanopore. Because a variety of coatings may beused, as suitable for each sensing application, the detection mechanismis not limited to electrical detection only. Optical detectionmechanisms may be preferable for certain embodiments. The presenttechnology is highly scalable, with both optically- andelectrically-addressable nanopore array assemblies enabling detectionover a surface area.

Electrical detection mechanisms rely on ion current sensing. Ion currentsensing for individual nanopores and nanopore arrays typically uses apotassium chloride or other electrolyte solution (salt solution). Ananopore membrane separates two reservoirs of ionic solution. Whenvoltage is applied across the two reservoirs, the potential drop almostentirely occurs at the nanopore. Therefore the ionic conductance orresistance between the two reservoirs is also the conductance orresistance of the nanopore. The nanopore conductance transiently dropswhen a molecule (e.g. DNA) enters and exits the nanopore, allowing itsdetection. By analyzing the transient conductance spikes, the propertiesof biopolymers (size, charge, structure) can be investigated. Thisdetection scheme can be parallelized using an array of nanopores withindividual electrodes situated at each chamber. The individualelectrodes are then uniquely addressable using techniques well-known inthe semiconductor industry.

Optical detection schemes are also effective in chemically-modifiednanopore sensors. Nanopore surfaces may be chemically functionalizedwith fluorescent molecules. In this mode of sensing, a voltage is usedto drive molecules through the nanopores, while a microscope is used tosense light output from each nanopore in the membrane. The nanopore (orarray of nanopores) is assembled in a cell containing a transparentwindow allowing optical probing of the membrane, while fluorescentmolecules are detected as they occupy the pore. In various applications,creating chemically-modified nanopores entails introducing fluorescentmolecules only at the pore (as opposed to over an area of the membrane)by performing two complementary reactions at opposite sides of themembrane. The size of each pore in the array can be either uniform orvarying (for example, a gradient of size and shape across a portion ofthe membrane). The location of each pore in the array is specifiedduring the fabrication process so that each pore has a known location.Alternately, the pores can be optically detected using fluorescentmolecules. The spacing between pores is chosen so that optical probingwould have sufficient resolution to address each pore (e.g approximately500 nm spacing between adjacent pores). The apparatus for opticalsensing is highly effective and used in several applications, detailedbelow.

Methods of Coating Solid-State Nanopores

Nanopores are extremely sensitive single-molecule sensors. Recently,electron beams have been used to fabricate synthetic nanopores in thinsolid-state membranes with sub-nanometer resolution. A new class ofchemically modified nanopore sensors are disclosed. Two approaches formonolayer coating of nanopores, described in detail below, include: (1)self-assembly from solution, in which nanopores ˜10 nm diameter can bereproducibly coated, and (2) self-assembly under voltage-drivenelectrolyte flow, in which 5 nm nanopores are coated. An extensivecharacterization of coated nanopores, their stability, reactivity, andpH response is described below.

Nanoscale control over the surface properties of nanopores can governits interactions with various analytes, resulting in “smart” nanoporesensors. Various approaches for nanopore functionalization have beenreported, from deposition of metals, oxides, to various organicmodifications. However, the resulting nanopore structure often gainssignificant thickness, and in some cases the morphology is unknown, dueto unavailability of imaging methods. In particular, molecular coatingof solid-state nanopores approaching the nm scale in all dimensions hasnot been reported to date. Robust procedures for chemical modificationof nanopores of sizes 5-20 nm fabricated in thin SiN membranes areprovided. Self-assembly methods are employed to control the chemical andphysical properties of a single nanopore, such as its charge, polarity,pH sensitivity, etc. Reproducible coating of nanopores as small as 5 nmare described that demonstrate surface modification, fast reactionkinetics, and pH responsiveness. Dressing an inorganic pore surface witha variety of organic coatings not only makes it more biologicallyfriendly, but further allows control of surface charge, hydrophobicity,and chemical functionality. An ultra-sensitive single nanopore pH sensoroperating at physiological ionic strengths is described.

An exemplary solid-state nanopore device is depicted in FIG. 1A (leftpanel) which provides schematic picture of the nanopore device. Piranhasolution is used to clean the nanopore surfaces before coating withorganosilanes, as well as to “uncoat” the nanopores. FIG. 1B (middlepanel) shows a depiction of two schemes for coating nanopores. In the exsitu method, the activated nanopore is simply immersed in silanesolution, followed by cleaning steps (not shown). In the in situ method,the nanopore device is assembled in a two-chamber cell and a voltage isapplied across it, driving supporting electrolyte through the poreduring the silane deposition process. FIG. 1C (right panel) showsstructures of the molecules used for various coatings. Molecules 1-3, asdepicted in FIG. 1C, are organosilanes, while 4-6 are used in furtherreactions with functional silane monolayers.

The SiN membrane surface contains a native oxide layer, which is usedhere for monolayer self-assembly of organosilanes. Prior to coating,piranha treatment is used for removal of contaminants and surfaceactivation. Further, the coating procedures are reversible: piranhatreatment can be used to completely remove the organic coatings andregenerate the clean nanopore surface. The middle panel, FIG. 1B, showstwo alternative molecular coating approaches: a) Ex situ assembly, inwhich the organic coating is performed by immersion of the nanopore chipinto the deposition solution, and b) In situ assembly, in which organicmolecules are allowed to react with the nanopore surface under drivenelectrolyte flow. There are different advantages to each of the ex situand in situ coating method, depending on the embodiment. The ex situcoating method entails a simpler process whereas the in situ assembly,for example, is capable of coating smaller nanopores without clogging,down to approximately 5 nm. Both ex situ and in situ chemical coatingmethods may be used for nanopore functionalization using self-assemblyof organosilane molecules. A number of analytical methods have beenemployed to clearly demonstrate: A) monolayer coating of variouschemical groups inside >10 nm pores fabricated in SiN membranes, and B)ion-current through the coated nanopores closely correlates with thecoating thickness. In situ measurements may be used to probe the coatingkinetics in real time.

On the right panel, FIG. 1C, the molecules used for coating thenanopores are shown. Films designated with a “+” sign may be prepared bymultiple reaction steps. Several coatings with common functional groupsare used: Epoxy (1), methoxyethylene glycol (“PEG”-type) (2), amine (3,3+5), carboxylic acid (3+4), and aldehyde (6). Molecules 1-3 areorganosilanes, which directly self-assemble on the nanopore surface toform functional monolayers. Molecules 4 and 6 were used to convertamine-coated surfaces to carboxylic acid and aldehydes, respectively.Molecule 5 was used in further reaction with the 3+4 surface to generatea thicker amine coating.

Other coating materials may also be employed, depending on theparticular application. For example, various silanes include a firstmoiety which binds to the surface of a semiconductor membrane and asecond moiety which binds to various tethered molecules. These silanesinclude, without limitation, 3-glycidoxypropyltrialkoxysilanes with C1-6alkoxy groups, trialkoxy(oxiranylalkyl)silanes with C2-12 alkyl groupsand C1-6 alkoxy groups, 2-(1,2-epoxycyclohexyl)ethyltrialkoxysilane withC1-6 alkoxy groups, 3-butenyl trialkoxysilanes with C1-6 alkoxy groups,alkenyltrialkoxysilanes with C2-12 alkenyl groups and C1-6 alkoxygroups, tris[(1-methylethenyl)oxy]3-oxiranylalkyl silanes with C2-12alkyl groups,[5-(3,3-dimethyloxiranyl)-3-methyl-2-pentenyl]trialkoxysilane with C1-6alkoxy groups, (2,3-oxiranediyldi-2,1-ethanediyl)bis-triethoxysilane,trialkoxy[2-(3-methyloxiranyl)alkyl]silane with C1-6 alkoxy groups andC2-12 alkyl groups,trimethoxy[2-[3-(17,17,17-trifluoroheptadecyl)oxiranyl]ethyl]silane,tributoxy[3-[3-(chloromethyl)oxiranyl]-2-methylpropyl]silane, anyalkylsilane where the alkyl groups have a varying length between 3 and30 carbons, and combinations thereof. Silanes can be coupled to thesemiconductor membrane according to a silanization reaction scheme (see,for example, PCT Publication Nos. WO/2006/0278580 and WO/2002/068957,the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in theirentireties).

By controlling the properties of the film used for coating thenanopores, the characteristics of the nanopore may be refined for avariety of applications. The ex situ method for chemicalfunctionalization of nanopore surfaces includes a sequence of chemicalcoating steps alternated with measurements to detect coating thickness,composition and surface characteristics. Film thickness, roughness andchemical composition of the different films on planar SiN substrates maybe determined through ellipsometry, non-contact atomic force microscopy(AFM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Table 1 displays datacomparing the ellipsometric thickness, δ, with the calculated thicknessbased on molecular models. Measured thicknesses are in agreement withcalculated values for films 1-3, indicating the formation of homogeneousmonolayers on the SiN substrate. The increase in film thickness upon theaddition of 4 or 6 suggests that the amine group remains reactive on thesurface. Further, reaction of the terminal carbonyl chloride 3+4 withdiamine 5 was successful. AFM characterization on these films yieldedRMS roughness values in the range 0.4-0.7 nm, similar to uncoated SiN(0.58 nm), implying a homogeneous film distribution.

TABLE 1 Characterization of the molecular films on SiN substrates usingellipsometry. Ellipsometry n_(f) ^(†) δ Model thickness^(‡) Film @633 nm(nm) (nm) 1 1.43 1.4 ± 0.1 1.1 2 1.46 2.5 ± 0.2 2.2 3 1.50 0.6 ± 0.1 0.73 + 4 1.50 1.2 ± 0.2 1.4 3 + 4 + 5 1.50 1.7 ± 0.2 2.1 3 + 6 1.50 1.1 ±0.2 1.3 ^(†)Based on bulk refractive index values. ^(‡)Calculated frommolecular models (CS Chem3D), assuming upright orientation on thesurface.

XPS measurements were performed to validate the chemical identity of thecoated films. FIG. 2 shows XPS spectra of bare (piranha-treated) SiNfilms on Si (top), and the same substrates after coating with 1 (middle)and 3+4+5 (bottom). The SiN exhibits strong signals for Si, N, and O, aswell as a residual C signal, attributed to contamination. Followingcoating with 1 (middle curve), a reduction of signals for Si, O, and N,coupled with an increase of the C signal were observed. Theamino-terminated film (3+4+5) exhibits a second N peak at 402 eV (seearrow), corresponding to a protonated amine state on the film (NH₃ ⁺). Apeak at 402 eV is attributed to the presence of ammonium ions in thefilm 3+4+5. The middle and the top curves were shifted by 15·10³ cps and30·10³ cps respectively.

TABLE 2 Ion-conductance at 1 M KCl, pH 8.5, for bare and coatednanopores (n = number of trials). D_(bare) G_(bare) G_(coated) <d_(eff)>d′ Coating (nm) (nS) (nS) (nm)^(†) (nm)^(‡) 1 13 (n = 2) 75 ± 4 35 ± 49.5 10 10 (n = 5) 34 ± 4 20 ± 5 7 7 2 15 (n = 2) 120 ± 5  26 ± 3 9 10 10(n = 2) 34 ± 4 13 ± 4 6 6 3 14 (n = 2) 100 ± 5  55 ± 8 12 12.5 12 (n =10) 65 ± 4 45 ± 5 11 10.5 3 + 4 + 5 25 (n = 1) 250  110 18 21 10 (n = 1)31 9 5 6 3 + 6 12 (n = 10) 65 ± 4 29 ± 7 9 9.5 10 (n = 1) 33 8 5 7.5^(†)Average error in all values is ±10%. ^(‡)Based on the ellipsometricthickness (see text).

The coating of highly concave surfaces in a confined volume isconsiderably different from coating of flat surfaces described above.Not only do the concave surfaces induce a different molecular packing,the highly confined volume of the nanopore may alter the adsorptionkinetics. Furthermore, the characterization techniques described abovecannot be used to probe coating inside a nanopore. On the other hand,the ion flux through the nanopores should be extremely sensitive to thenanopore coating thickness, since the ionic conductance (G) dependsquadratically, to a first approximation, on the pore diameter, d. Aseries of ion-conductance measurements for uncoated and coated poresusing nanopores with diameters in the range 10-25 nm validates this(Table 2). G was measured for each chip before and after the coatingprocedure and estimated the effective diameter, d_(eff), based on the Gvalues. These numbers were compared with the model coated nanopore size,d′=d_(bare)−2δ, where d_(bare) is the TEM measured diameter of theuncoated pore, and δ is the coating thickness measured by ellipsometry.An agreement between d_(eff) and d′ indicates that nanopore coatingthickness is commensurate with surface coating thickness. As seen inTable 2, the effective nanopore sizes agree very well with the modelsize for all the coating types used, supporting the formation ofmonolayers with the expected thickness inside the nanopores. A reductionin G may also be attributed to an increase of the membrane thickness.However, only a negligible contribution is expected from this: on the 50nm thick SiN membrane used in these measurements, the thickest coating(2.5 nm) should increase the membrane thickness by 10% (5 nm), and inturn should decrease G by 10% or less. In contrast, roughly an 80%decrease in G for this coating was observed, implying that the reductionin G is primarily due to coating inside the nanopore.

Nanopore coating is further supported by high resolution TEM imaging.FIG. 3A illustrates a bright-field TEM images of a 10 nm nanoporefollowing cleaning with piranha solution. FIG. 3B (left) illustrates aTEM image of a 10 nm nanopore following coating with compounds 3+4+5.FIG. 3B (right) illustrates a TEM image of the same pore after 30 sirradiation under low e-beam dose, during which the organic layerappears to have been removed. The scale bar in all images is 5 nm.

FIG. 3B displays a similar 10 nm pore after coating with the 1.7 nmthick 3+4+5 layer. Several marked differences appear: First, the coatedsurface displays larger grains. Second, the nanopore boundary appearsdull, as opposed to the sharp SiN/pore boundary in the unmodifiednanopore. The nanopore interior in the TEM image reveals an unevengrayish decoration (indicated by an arrow), attributed to coating. Thislayer is clearly in focus, marked by the sharp boundary between thecoating and vacuum. The maximum estimated coating thickness is ˜2 nm,very close to the measured coating thickness (1.7 nm). The image on theright in FIG. 3B displays a TEM image of the nanopore following a30-second exposure to the e-beam under imaging conditions (e-beamintensity: ˜10³ e/nm²s). The surface graininess disappears yielding asurface highly resembling the uncoated membrane in FIG. 3A.

While the ex situ coating procedure is highly reliable for nanoporeslarger than ˜10 nm, smaller pores tend to clog, in part due toaccumulation of silane molecules inside the pore. To circumvent thisproblem, an in situ coating method, as shown in FIG. 1B was devised. Insitu chemical coating is a technique for coating solid-state nanoporescharacterized by monitoring the chemical functionalization process as itproceeds and preventing small-dimensioned nanopores (less thanapproximately 10 nm in diameter) from clogging with the coatingcompound. In this coating mode, the nanopore is assembled in a cellcontaining the coating solvent and a supporting electrolyte (a salt thatdoes not react with the surface). A voltage is applied to the nanopore,and the ionic current is measured. The coating molecule is thenintroduced to one of the chambers, and the current is measured inreal-time as the coating proceeds. Thus, in certain applications, the insitu method is preferred over the ex situ method insofar as it preventsclogging of nanopores due to polymerization of the coating molecule inthe pore and it provides information regarding the coating kinetics asthe coating progresses.

In situ measurements may be used to probe the coating kinetics in realtime. Coatings comprising amine terminated groups, particularly usefuldue to their wide range of applicability, may be applied with the insitu coating method. A second, selective layer, may be formed onamine-coated pores. The corresponding adsorption kinetics can beobserved by monitoring the ion-current flowing through single nanopores.The characteristic adsorption timescale is comparable with bulkadsorption onto planar surfaces, suggesting high reactivity on thenanopore surface.

The coated nanopore, according to the example presented, is stable overdays, even under treatments with voltage pulses of up to 5 V. Thisstability is noteworthy because silane monolayers can degrade under invitro solution conditions. Amine-coated nanopores exhibit pH sensitiveconductance. However, due to the small dimensions of the nanopores, a4-fold difference in the conductance at physiological ionic strengths(0.1 M) may be observed. Coated nanoscale pores can thus be used tofabricate ultra small and sensitive pH sensors. Chemically-modifiednanopores fabricated in inorganic membranes open a wide range ofpossibilities for stochastic sensing. For example, amine-terminatedgroups can be used to immobilize protein receptors in a robust, nearlytwo-dimensional device. The planar geometry employed allowsstraightforward multiplexing using nanopore arrays. Thechemically-modified nanopores may be used to gate single-moleculetransport

In the in situ chemical coating approach, silane is mixed with organicelectrolyte in anhydrous solvent, and a voltage is applied across thenanopore during the deposition process. The electric field induces flowof electrolyte across the nanopore, which effectively slows down themolecular adsorption kinetics. Exemplary techniques are illustrated inFIG. 4, in which the coating of a 5 nm pore with aminosilane 3 ismonitored over time. FIG. 4 illustrates a current-time trace (measuredat 400 mV) for the in situ coating of a 5 nm nanopore using aminosilane3 (supporting electrolyte: 0.5 M TBACl, solvent: anhydrous MeOH). Equalaliquots of 3 were injected at points 1 and 2. Anhydrous MeOH was usedas the solvent and 0.5 M tetrabutylammonium chloride (TBACl) as thesupporting electrolyte. The injection of 3 at 50 s, (arrow 1) resultedin a nearly exponential decrease in the current from 1.2 nA down to ˜0.7nA, with a characteristic time scale of 17 s. The addition of an equalaliquot of 3 at 600 s (arrow 2) caused only a minor decrease in thecurrent, from 0.7 nA to ˜0.6 nA. The first aliquot of 3 resulted inmonolayer deposition on the pore surface. Based on the molecularthickness of 3 (0.7 nm, see Table 1), a single monolayer decreases thepore cross-sectional area by 48%. This value is in excellent agreementwith the measured reduction in current of 42%. The minor additionaldecrease in the current after the second addition of 3 is attributed todilution of the electrolyte by the uncharged silane. Similar resultswere obtained in repeated measurements.

FIG. 5A illustrates current-time traces (measured at 100 mV) for theaddition of 2% 6 to the cis chamber of a bare 10 nm (I) and amine-coated12 nm nanopore (II). FIG. 5B illustrates normalized change in the ioncurrent (measured at 100 mV, 1 M KCl buffered with 10 mM phosphate to pH5.8) of 12 nm diameter nanopores coated with aminosilane 3 upon theaddition of gluteraldehyde (6) to final concentrations of 0.4% (a), 1%(b), and 2% (c) in the cis-chamber (at t=0). The bulk conductivities ofthe GA solutions were adjusted in order to match that of the electrolyte(161±1 mS). The inset, FIG. 5C, illustrates time constant (τ) fittingresults to first-order adsorption kinetics for the differentconcentrations. The solid line is a best fit to the data.

Amine-modified surfaces are versatile platforms for a wide range ofapplications in biotechnology. For example, glutaraldehyde (6) is acommon reagent used for coupling amine-modified surfaces with proteins.Coated nanopore functionality was tested by monitoring the reaction ofthe amine-coated nanopores with glutaraldehyde. FIG. 5A displays an ioncurrent trace (measured in 1M KCl aqueous solution, pH 5.8) of a 12 nmnanopore pre-coated with aminosilane 3. Upon the addition of 6 at t=0(to a final concentration of 2%), G quickly drops by ˜50% and stabilizesat a level of ˜1.5 nA (II). To show that the current reduction isspecifically due to reaction with the amine-coated nanopore, a currenttrace measured during the addition of 2% of compound 6 to an uncoated 10nm pore (I) is displayed, which resulted in only 6% change in G. Thisillustrates the specificity of the glutaraldehyde reaction on aminecoated pores.

The reaction kinetics inside an amine-coated nanopore also showsdependence on the bulk concentration of 6. In FIG. 5B, three ion-currenttraces obtained during addition of 6 at bulk concentrations of 2.0%,1.0% and 0.4% v/v are shown. These curves were fitted to first-orderadsorption kinetics, yielding a linear dependence on concentration (FIG.5C, inset). In all cases, the steady state ion-current levels after theaddition of 6 were 50±10% of the initial pore currents.

Aside from the bulk concentration of ions, surface charges may alsoaffect ion-transport through nanoscale channels. To investigate thiseffect in the nanopores, the amino groups are protonated upon loweringthe solution pH. Since surface ammonium pK_(a) values are lower(pK_(a)˜5-6) than in solution (pK_(a)˜9), one expects to observe astrong ion conductance pH dependence around pH 5-6.

FIG. 6 shows the I-V curves of an 12 nm uncoated nanopore (A), and anamine-coated nanopore (after APTMS-coating) (B), at 1.0 M KCl, at pH3.3, 5.8 and 8.3. FIGS. 6(C) and (D) show IV curves for similarmeasurements at 0.1 M KCl for the same uncoated and coated nanopores.The coated pore conductance shows high pH sensitivity at the low ionicstrength level. At 1M KCl, both coated and uncoated pores exhibit a weakpH dependence on conductance. In contrast, the coated pore displays amarked current enhancement (˜4 fold), going from pH 8.3 down to pH 3.3,while the uncoated pore remains insensitive to pH even at the low ionicstrength.

To explain the marked pH sensitivity of the coated pores the porecurrent may be written as:

$\begin{matrix}{{I \approx {\frac{\pi \; d^{2}}{4}{\sigma_{B}( {1 + {4\frac{\lambda_{D}}{d}ɛ}} )}}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where σ_(B) is the bulk mobilities of the KCl ions, λ_(D), the Debyelength (effective double-layer thickness), and

$ɛ = \frac{\sigma_{S} - \sigma_{B}}{\sigma_{B}}$

is the mobility enhancement (or reduction) near the surface. At 1M KCl,λ_(D) is roughly 0.3 nm, thus

$\frac{\lambda_{D}}{d}{\operatorname{<<}1}$

and surface effects are small. On the other hand, at 0.1M KCl, λ_(D)˜1nm, thus

${ \frac{\lambda_{D}}{d} \sim 0.1},$

leading to a significant pH dependence on the ion-conductance. Theseresults are in agreement with measurements performed in track-etchedPETP pores, which have native carboxylic groups on their surface.

Coating Chemically-Modified Solid-State Nanopores

The following chemicals may be used in coating the solid-statenanopores, according to certain embodiments. Toluene (Burdick & Jackson,AR) was dried by distillation from CaH₂ and storage over activated 4 Åmolecular sieves. MeOH, CHCl₃, and CH₃CN (anhydrous, Baker) were used asreceived. Glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (1, Alfa-Aesar, 97%),methoxyethoxyundecyltrichlorosilane (2, Gelest, Inc., 95%),3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (3, Acros, 95%), adipoyl chloride (4, 97%,Alfa Aesar), 1,4-diaminobutane (5, Alfa Aesar, 99%), glutaraldehyde (6,25% in water, Acros), and all other common reagents were used asreceived.

In other embodiments, chemical modification of solid-state nanoporesentails the use of other chemicals including, for example, varioussilanes. These silanes include, without limitation,3-glycidoxypropyltrialkoxysilanes with C1-6 alkoxy groups,trialkoxy(oxiranylalkyl)silanes with C2-12 alkyl groups and C1-6 alkoxygroups, 2-(1,2-epoxycyclohexyl)ethyltrialkoxysilane with C1-6 alkoxygroups, 3-butenyl trialkoxysilanes with C1-6 alkoxy groups,alkenyltrialkoxysilanes with C2-12 alkenyl groups and C1-6 alkoxygroups, tris[(1-methylethenyl)oxy]3-oxiranylalkyl silanes with C2-12alkyl groups,[5-(3,3-dimethyloxiranyl)-3-methyl-2-pentenyl]trialkoxysilane with C1-6alkoxy groups, (2,3-oxiranediyldi-2,1-ethanediyl)bis-triethoxysilane,trialkoxy[2-(3-methyloxiranyl)alkyl]silane with C1-6 alkoxy groups andC2-12 alkyl groups,trimethoxy[2-[3-(17,17,17-trifluoroheptadecyl)oxiranyl]ethyl]silane,tributoxy[3-[3-(chloromethyl)oxiranyl]-2-methylpropyl]silane, anyalkylsilane where the alkyl groups have a varying length between 3 and30 carbons, and combinations thereof.

The nanopores are be formed in a solid-state membrane or substrate. Avariety of solid-state membranes may be used including those comprisingsilicon nitride, silicon dioxide, silicon oxynitrides of varyingcompositions, as well as other metal oxides with react with silanes(e.g. aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, etc.). In certain embodiments,low-stress SiN membranes (50×50 μm², either 20 or 50 nm thick) may beused. Nanopore fabrication was carried out on the membranes using a JEOL2010F field emission TEM operating at 200 kV, which was also used forimaging the nanopores. The nanopore fabrication process is known in theart and described at length in publications including: Kim, M. J.;Wanunu, M.; Bell, D. C.; Meller, A. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 3149-3153,herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The ex situ method for nanopore coating includes the following steps.Before coating, nanopore chips were first cleaned by boiling in piranhasolution (1:3 H₂O₂: H₂SO₄) for 15 minutes, followed by rinsing in 18 MΩwater, filtered MeOH, and drying at 100° C. for 5 min. Coating with 1was performed by immersion of the clean chip into 0.1% 1 in toluene for1 h, followed by agitation in fresh toluene (8×3 ml) for 10 min, dryingunder N₂ and baking at 100° C. for 1 h. Coating with 2 was performed byimmersion into a 2 mM solution of 2 in toluene for 20 min, followed byagitation in fresh toluene (8×3 ml) for 10 min, washing with MeOH,water, and drying under N₂. Coating with 3 was performed by immersioninto a 5% solution of 3 in MeOH for 3-6 hours, followed by 10-15 minagitation in MeOH (8×3 ml), drying under N₂, and baking at 100° C. for30 min. Reaction of the aminosilanized chip with 4 was performed byimmersion in a 5% solution of 4 in anhydrous toluene under N₂ for 30min, followed by agitation in fresh toluene 8 times and drying under N₂.Subsequent reaction with 5 was performed by immersion into a 1% solutionof 5 in 1:1 CHCl₃:CH₃CN for 2 h, rinsing with MeOH (8×3 ml), water, anddrying under N₂. Other ex situ nanopore coating methods are envisioned,the above steps providing one illustration.

The coating may be characterized using various methods. In oneembodiment, the different coatings were characterized on Si substratesonto which 50 nm low-stress SiN layer was deposited by LPCVD. An ES-1(V-VASE32) Woollam spectroscopic ellipsometer was used to characterizethe film thickness. AFM was performed using Veeco Instruments Multimodeoperating in the tapping mode. All measurements were performed using thesame 10 nm tip with a cantilever frequency of 250 kHz. A SSX-100 SurfaceScience XPS instrument equipped with a Monochromatic Al-kα source wasused for analyzing the films. A spot size of 0.6 mm was used, thetakeoff angle was 45±10°, and the chamber pressure was 10⁻⁹-10⁻¹⁰ torr.

Ion-conductance measurements establish a baseline against whichion-current variations may be detected. The ion-conductance of nanoporeswas checked by mounting the chip in a two-chamber cell such that bothsides of the nanopore are separated. In order to wet the nanopore, thechip was wet on the cis side with ca. 5 μl MeOH, filled from the transside with degassed electrolyte, and then the MeOH was gradually dilutedfrom the cis chamber by flushing with electrolyte. Two Ag/AgClelectrodes were inserted into each chamber, and the leads were connectedto an Axopatch 200B amplifier. I-V curves were then recorded atintervals of 50 mV and the conductance calculated from the slope of thecurve.

For pH conductance measurements, solutions of different pH values wereprepared using 10 mM phosphate buffer, and the bulk conductivities ofall solutions at a given ionic strength were adjusted (using aconductivity probe) to within 0.5% by the addition of KCl.

The in situ method for nanopore coating includes the following steps.Silanization of nanopores with 3 was performed by filling both chambersof a clean, 5 nm nanopore, with 0.5M TBACl in anhydrous MeOH. Thecurrent was recorded at 400 mV with 100 Hz sampling rate. 5 μl aliquotsof 3 were added to ˜150 μl in the cis chamber. In situ reaction ofamino-terminated nanopores with glutaraldehyde 6 was performed bymounting nanopores coated with 3 in a nanopore setup and filling thechambers with 1 M KCl, buffered with 10 mM phosphate to pH 5.8. A flowcell was used to introduce different concentrations of 6 to the cischamber. To avoid conductance changes due to electrolyte dilution, theconductivity of solutions containing 6 were adjusted with KCl to matchthat of the electrolyte in the chambers.

APPLICATIONS

The coated nanopores may be used in the following applications: (1)tuning the analyte-pore interactions by chemical modification of poresurfaces; (2) articulating solid-state nanopore sensors with proteins;and (3) localized environmental sensing.

(1) Tuning the Analyte-Pore Interactions by Chemical Modification ofPore Surfaces

Nanopores are an emerging class of single-molecule sensors capable ofprobing the properties of nucleic acids and proteins withhigh-throughput and resolution Nanopores are extremely sensitive singlemolecule sensors, which have been recently used for the detection ofbiopolymers such as DNA and RNA. One of the most promising applicationsfor nanopores is ultra-fast DNA sequencing. An outstanding issue in theimplementation of nanopore sequencing is the high speed at which thebiopolymers translocate through the pore. In order to distinguishbetween the four different nucleotides in the DNA, a sufficientintegration time should be realized in the readout process. Currentresults show that the translocation time of each single nucleotide istwo to three orders of magnitude faster than the desired speed. Althoughefforts have been made to reduce the translocation speed, e.g., byincreasing the fluid viscosity, only a small decrease of the speed wasobserved, coupled to attenuation of the ion current signal used fornucleotide probing. Current decreases with increases in viscosity,resulting in a decreasing signal-to-noise ratio and ion current signaldegradation.

FIG. 7A illustrates the translocation of biopolymers, such as DNAmolecules, through uncoated (bare) silicon nitride nanopores 700 is toofast, and on occasion, results in irreversible sticking to the nanopore700. FIG. 7B illustrates how the coating of the nanopores 700 withuniform layer of short polymers (coating 720) can be used to avoidsticking and to reduce translocation speed of the biopolymer (710).

The inventors have indicated that the main factors affecting DNA 710translocation speed in nanopores 700 are associated with thepore-biopolymer interactions, at the pore walls. Thus, it may bepreferable to target these interactions, rather than changing globalproperties, such as the solution viscosity. The methods described inthis invention set the stage for specific, interaction-based chemicalmodification that can be used to slow down DNA 710 translocation. Inparticular, grafting short organic polymers 720 inside the nanopore 700(see FIGS. 7A and 7B) can hinder the DNA electrophoretic mobility byinteractions with DNA 710 at the nanopore volume. The disclosed methodscan be tested with a number of different polymer chains and end-groupsto target specific biopolymer interactions. For example, cationic (+)groups, such as polyamines, may slow down DNA translocation byelectrostatic attraction to the anionic (−) DNA molecule. Surface-boundion chelators (e.g., Zr⁴⁺, Ce⁴⁺) may also retard DNA translocation byweak coordination to the phosphate backbone of the DNA molecule.

In nanopore experiments such as those depicted with reference to FIGS.7A and 7B, a voltage is applied across a thin insulating membranecontaining a nanoscale pore 700, and the ion current of an electrolyteflowing through the pore is measured. Upon introduction of chargedbiopolymers to the solution, the local electrical field drivesindividual molecules through the nanopore 700. Passage of biopolymers710 through the pore causes fluctuations in the measured ion currentthat directly correspond to their local cross-section. While othersingle-molecule techniques (e.g., atomic force microscopy) rely on amovable sensor to detect the properties of surface-immobilizedbiomolecules 710, the nanopore is spatially fixed, with the moleculesbeing driven to the nanopore sensor 700. This allows a very large numberof single biopolymers to be probed without chemical modification(conserving structure/function). This also eliminates the need forsurface immobilization, thereby providing higher throughput. Theseattractive features have set the stage for the development of novelnanopore-based applications, such as detection of genetic variability,probing DNA-protein interactions, and low-cost, high-throughput DNAsequencing.

Central to all such nanopore methods is the objective of controlling thetranslocation process at a level that allows spatial information to beresolved at the nanometer scale, within the finite time resolutionimposed by instrument bandwidth and noise. To achieve this goal,developing a fundamental understanding of the factors governing the DNAtranslocation dynamics, and its relationship with the magnitude andfluctuations in the blocked current signal, is desirable. To date, mostDNA translocation studies have been performed using the toxinα-hemolysin (α-HL), which can only admit single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) andRNA (but not double-stranded nucleic acids). Typical translocationvelocities for ssDNA through the α-HL channel are ν_(T)˜0.2 mm/s(measured at 120 mV and RT), corresponding to translocation times ofτ_(T)(N)=l/Nν_(T)≈=2 μs/base (N=number of nucleotides, l is the DNAcontour length), approaching feasible temporal resolution forsingle-base detection. However, biotechnological nanopore applicationsrequire size tunability and membrane robustness, not available withphospholipid-embedded protein channels.

Recent progress in the fabrication of nanoscale materials has enabledthe reproducible formation of artificial, well-defined nanopores inthin, solid-state membranes. Most DNA translocation studies have focusedon relatively large pores (8-20 nm), for which the translocationdynamics were markedly faster (ν_(T)˜10 mm/s or 30 ns/bp). In additionto the fast dynamics, the use of large nanopores necessitated performingmeasurements at smaller temporal bandwidths than with α-HL experiments(10 kHz vs. 100 kHz, respectively). This results in degradation of theion current signal, which compromises the spatial resolution of theanalyzed biopolymer. Slowing down biopolymer translocation is thereforea key goal for improving the analytical capabilities of nanopores. Thepresent techniques for providing chemical functionalization of nanoporesurfaces may be used to slow biopolymer translocation, and enable thissensing applications.

Presented in Example #1, below, is a systematic investigation of thevoltage-driven translocation dynamics of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)through solid-state nanopores as a function of DNA length, temperature,and pore size, recorded at comparable bandwidths to measurements withα-HL. Results show complex dynamics, characterized by two distinctregimes where different length-scaling laws prevail. Temperaturedependence studies indicate the negligible role of viscous drag,pointing to the significance of DNA/surface interactions. Finallycontrol over the nanopore size not only affects the translocationprobability, but in turn has a dramatic impact on the dynamics. Thisholds significant implications for nanopore design, allowing thedynamics to be fine-tuned by sub-nm control over pore size. Experimentalevidence indicates that DNA-surface interactions both inside and outsidethe nanopore govern the translocation dynamics. As a consequence, theinventors observed that for 4 nm pores that dsDNA velocities as low as10 μs/bp can be achieved with high throughput. Such speeds arecommensurate with instrumentation bandwidths, thus allowing for thefirst time an individual basepair to be sampled. Thus theinteraction-based approach for slowing DNA favorably compares withnatural α-HL channel, representing a crucial resolution improvement forfuture solid-state nanopore applications.

(2) Articulating Solid-State Nanopore Sensors with Proteins

Protein molecules are nature's laborers, carrying out a variety ofprecise tasks, such as molecular recognition, chemical catalysis, andmolecular transport. By articulating the solid-state nanopores withindividual protein molecules, these functions can be probed withunprecedented efficiency and sensitivity. Molecular recognition can bestudied by immobilizing a single protein molecule in the nanopore, andthen observing ion current blockades during binding of analytes. Enzymecatalysis can be studied at the single-molecule level by optical probingof enzymes immobilized inside nanopores, while using ion-currentmeasurements for additional control over activity and analyteconcentration. Molecular transport through protein channels can beengineered by immobilizing a single protein channel inside a nanopore.Since the immobilized protein molecule is immobilized at the junctionconnecting the two membrane sides, it can be subjected to chemicalgradients, or conversely it can pump molecules from side to side tocreate chemical differences (see FIG. 7C-D). According to thisinvention, three classes of programmable, nanopore-based single-moleculesensors are presented:

FIG. 7C illustrates how enzymes or other proteins are specificallyimmobilized inside nanopores by coating the pores with organicmonolayers 730 that specifically bind particular groups on the proteinImmobilization of the protein 740 in the nanopore 700 opens up thepossibility of applying chemical gradients on the enzyme, or to use theprotein for the generation of chemical gradients, represented by thetwo-color background in the figure.

A. Recognition: Protein molecules having specific recognition elements,i.e., antibody epitopes, can be bound to the interior of the nanopore bychemical grafting to immobilized chemical groups on the nanopores. Suchrecognition devices will be sensitive to various agents, being able todetect other proteins, viruses, and other pathogens. The detection ismade possible by monitoring the ion-current of the nanopore. During theaddition of various agents, the current will be blocked upon specificbinding to the recognition element in the nanopore. The well-establishedspecificity of the recognition, coupled to single-molecule sensitivityafforded by the nanopores, enables the fabrication of a variety ofultra-sensitive devices.

In one example, antibodies for any one of a variety of importantpathogens (e.g., anthrax, E. coli, salmonella) can be bound to thesurface of the nanopore using coupling chemistry, e.g., usingamine-groups on the antibody and carboxylic groups on the surface. Thenanopore is then exposed to a salted sample solution, while applying avoltage across the nanopore. Entry of a single pathogen into thenanopore volume would result in a reduction in the ion current,indicating a positive identification. The existing variety of antibodiesand other specific recognition elements enable an enormous spectrum ofdetection schemes.

B. Catalysis: Enzymatic activity can also be probed on thesingle-molecule level. This can be achieved by chemically grafting asingle enzyme (protein) to the nanopore cavity. Usingglutaraldehyde-functionalized nanopores, it is possible to fix singleprotein molecules inside nanopores by reaction of surface aldehydes withamine groups on the surface of the protein molecule. This reaction iswell-known on planar surfaces, although it has never been demonstratedinside a nanopore surface. Enzymes catalyze the chemical conversion ofspecific molecules (substrates). Using a fluorophore-labeled substrate,the turnover (conversion rate) for a single enzyme molecule can beprobed in real time using optical microscopy.

In one example, the proton pump ATP synthase is a reversible couplingdevice that can convert the electrochemical potential in proton gradientinto chemical bond energy, or vice versa. ATP synthase. In bacteria theATP synthase pumps protons (H⁺ atoms) through the mitochondrial innermembrane, against a chemical potential, by hydrolyzing ATP molecules.Conversely, it can generate ATP from ADP by proton flow. These processesare done with great efficiency. This enzyme is composed of a static partknown as the “stator” and a rotation portion known as the rotor. Duringcatalysis the rotor moves and can generate torque. In this respect ATPsynthase is also a mechanical motor. Harnessing biological pumps andmotors may be realized if the enzymes are immobilized inside a nanoporemade in structurally rigid membrane. This has three advantages over theincorporation of the enzyme in phospholipids bilayers: a) Phospholipidbilayers are fluid, thus the enzymes can diffuse in the bilayercomplicating the probing. b) Solid-state membranes are more durable androbust mechanically and chemically. c) By fabricating high-densityarrays of pores, one may construct dense “factories” of enzymes, whichare capable of producing energy in the form of a proton gradient.

Nanopore immobilization enables the enzyme activity, by applying voltageacross the nanopore, and controlling the transport rate of differentcofactors, which are essential for enzyme activity. The nanopore tooltherefore affords single-enzyme localization and further control overactivity.

C. Transport: Trans-membrane protein channels form robust channelsacross lipid bilayers, designed for selective transport of ions andmolecules. Self-assembly of protein molecules to form channels isspontaneous, yielding a highly-reproducible shape down to the atomiclevel. Membrane-embedded channels (e.g., α-hemolysin and others) havebeen used to study transport of biopolymers and small molecules,emerging as highly sensitive single-molecule detectors. Despite this,the limited stability of lipid bilayers restricts the commercializationof such devices. By using solid state nanopores, in place of nanoporesformed in lipid bilayers, these stability problems may be overcome.Solid state nanopores have a high degree of stability and provide arobust sensing mechanism with commercial promise. Chemically-modifiednanopores containing hydrophobic moieties (e.g., alkanes) can mimic alipid bilayer environment, enabling the spontaneous insertion of proteinchannels into the modified nanopores. The resultingsolid-state/biological channel combination can enable long-lifesingle-molecule sensors.

FIG. 7D illustrates immobilization of a protein channel 750 inside ananopore 700 fabricated in a solid-state membrane. As above, nanopore700 may be coated with organic monolayers 730 for selective binding. Therobust, semi-synthetic device provides new opportunities utilizingengineered protein channels as sensors, exhibiting solid-state rigidityand durability while allowing biochemical versatility.

(3) Localized Environmental Sensing

Sensing of microscopic environments can provide a wealth of informationon processes occurring in dynamic systems, such as living cells. Probingthese processes can be accomplished by probing the local environmentaround them. For a living cell several micrometers in length, localizedsensing with spatial resolution of 10-100 nm can reveal unprecedentedinformation on cell function. Sensing of a variety of environmentalfactors on these scales is a challenge which can be overcome usingchemically-modified nanopores. Localized environmental sensing can beconducted with either a single nanopore or a two-dimensional array ofnanopores.

Arrays of nanopores can be fabricated on a thin single solid-stateinsulating membrane with each nanopore separated from an adjacentnanopore on the membrane by a selected distance. Arrays ofchemically-modified nanopores can be rapidly fabricated on identicalsilicon nitride membranes (e.g. having a thickness between approximately5 nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers). Since the chemicalmodification step is performed under conditions which expose the wholemembrane, the chemical modification parameters are the same for ananopore array as they are for a single nanopore. After chemicalmodification of the nanopore array, various environmentally-sensitivereagents can be introduced to each nanopore, and each nanopore wouldbehave as a localized reporter of the environment. The coated nanoporetechnology enables sensing of a variety of ions in solution/in contactwith the nanopore surface. The two examples below are illustrative.

A. Localized pH sensing: Sensing pH is one instance of manyenvironmental sensing applications envisioned. Using a two-dimensionalarray of chemically-modified nanopores, localized pH sensing can beaccomplished. The nanopores are functionalized with a pH-responsivechemical group, i.e., a fluorophore, and the device is placed above afluorescent microscope. At any particular solution pH, the arraydisplays a constant intensity. However, upon a local change in pH,intensity variations can be seen.

For example, by equipping a nanopore with various fluorescent probes,refined sensing of a variety of ions and small molecules is possible.According to certain embodiments, calcium and phosphate can be detectedby various sensor systems well-known in the art. In each environmentalsensing application, optical detection approaches entail probing thefluorescence intensity of a fluorophore embedded in a nanopore as afunction of time. When the nanopore is subjected to the analyte ion, thefluorescence intensity changes as a result of changes to theconformation and/or structure of the fluorphore. In this example, thebinding of four Ca²⁺ ions to a calmodulin-M13 moiety in a Calcium Sensorinduces a conformational change to the protein-based sensor. This changebrings the cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) and yellow fluorescent protein(YFP) domains closer, allowing fluorescence resonance energy transfer(FRET) to occur (resulting in modulation of the light intensity at thepore).

B. Spatial concentration sensing using arrays: Spatial variations inanalyte concentration may be sensed using nanopore arrays. Using arrayssimilar to those disclosed above, it is possible to coat nanopores withfluorophores which are sensitive to ions and molecules. For example,phosphate ions can be visualized by immobilizing malachite green ontothe nanopores, ATP can be sensed by immobilizing luciferase in thepresence of luciferin, etc. In this application, the gradient of themolecules (or ions) to be detected is probed by sensing the fluorescenceintensity spatial distribution. The nanopore array serves twofunctions: 1) to spatially immobilize the probe molecules in givenlocations and 2) to support objects such as live cells on solidsurfaces.

EXAMPLES Example #1 Unfolded DNA Translocation Governed by Interactionswith Solid State Nanopores

Experimentation has verified voltage-driven translocation dynamics ofindividual DNA molecules through solid-state nanopores. Nanopores withdiameters slightly larger than the DNA cross-section (approximately 2.2nm) may be used to reduce translocation times. In certain embodiments,the translocation times of DNA molecules are slowed by approximately oneto two orders of magnitude. Experimental evidence reveals that bothtemperature and the nanopore size strongly affect the dynamics. Whilenot wishing to be bound by theory, the inventors believe this effectimplies that interactions between DNA and the membrane are therate-limiting step for translocation, as opposed to viscous drag. ForDNA longer than ˜10 Kuhn lengths, a crossover in the scaling of thetranslocation dynamics to a slow regime is observed. Furthermore,experimental results suggest the DNA current blockage is lengthdependent above the transition point, supporting a model involvingDNA/membrane interactions outside the nanopore. The evidence of slowerdynamics corresponds to ˜10 μs/bp, measurable using state of the artinstrumental bandwidth (100 KHz).

FIG. 8 shows a solid-state nanopore device for single-molecule analysis.FIG. 8A illustrates a schematic view of a solid state nanopore devicefor probing DNA translocation dynamics, according to one embodiment ofthe invention. The apparatus for solid-state nanopore experimentation isshown. DNA molecules are driven through the nanopore by an appliedvoltage, while the ion current of an electrolyte is measured. DynamicVoltage Control is used to automatically unclog the nanopores when amolecule remains in the pore for a prolonged time. According to thepresent embodiment, nanopores are drilled with sub-nm resolution, andion conductance measurements are used to better estimate the actualnanopore size, d, as previously described in Rapid fabrication ofuniformly sized nanopores and nanopore arrays for parallel DNA analysis(Kim M J, Wanunu M, Bell D C, Meller A. (2006) Adv. Mater.18:3149-3153).

FIG. 8B shows a plot of a typical ion current trace for a 4 nm solidstate nanopore before and after introducing DNA sample to the cischamber (indicated by arrow), according to one embodiment of theinvention. The transient current blockade events correspond tosingle-molecule translocation of DNA. The inset displays a magnified setof translocation events of 400 bp DNA, with the described relevantparameters (baseline data between events has been removed in order toincrease the displayed time resolution). Upon addition of dsDNA into thecis chamber (arrow “DNA” in FIG. 8B), a distinct stochastic currentblockade events may be observed. The rate of the events scales with DNAconcentration. To confirm that the observed current blockade eventscorrespond to DNA translocation experimentation showed that a 400 bpfragment placed in the cis chamber could be found in the trans chamberfollowing ˜6,000 current blockade events. A trace of current blockadeevents with a greatly expanded time axis is shown in the inset to FIG.8B. Several parameters are defined here: the event duration (ordwell-time), t_(D), the mean blocked pore current,

, and the fractional current, I_(B)=

in normalized units (I_(B)=0 corresponds to a fully blocked pore).

DNA translocation dynamics in interactions with solid state nanoporesmay be experimentally evaluated in regard to (1) the effect of pore sizeon DNA translocation probability, and (2) the dependence oftranslocation dynamics on DNA length, temperature, and nanopore size.The findings in regard to each aspect are described at length below.

(1) Effect of Pore Size on DNA Translocation Probability.

The effect of nanopore size on DNA translocation probability wasexperimentally examined FIG. 9 illustrates histograms of blocked currentlevels, and insets showing TEM images of nanopores, according to variousembodiments of the invention. Specifically, the histograms show theblocked current levels, I_(B), measured for >3,000 translocation eventsof 400 bp DNA at 300 mV using three different nanopore diameters, 3.1nm, 4.0 nm and 4.6 nm (a-c, respectively). The insets are TEM images ofnanopores with corresponding sizes (scale bars=2 nm). The currenthistograms clearly showed two normal populations, as seen by a fit to asum of two Gaussian functions (black curves). The high current event(I_(BH), dark grey) and the low current event (I_(BL), light grey)populations, as well as the low-current fraction F_(L), are defined inthe text.

The histograms clearly show that all events fall into one of twopopulations (dark and light grey), which are well-represented as a sumof two normal distributions (black traces). The cutoff current, I_(cut),is established to be the local minimum between the two peaks denoted asI_(BH) (high current peak, dark grey) and I_(BL) (low current peak,light grey). The fraction of the low current events is approximated by:

F_(L) = n_(L)/(n_(L) + n_(H)),  where  n_(L) = ∫₀^(I_(cut))H(I)I  and  n_(H) = ∫_(I_(cut))¹H(I)I,

and H(I) is the measured histogram of events with normalized blockedcurrent I, and dI is the bin size. F_(L) systematically increases from0.20 to 0.81 as the pore diameter increases from 3.1 to 4.6 nm. Inaddition, the values of both I_(BH) and I_(BL) increase with thenanopore size.

Further quantitative representation is provided in FIG. 10. FIG. 10illustrates a plot of experimental current levels and theoreticalcurrent levels for a series of nanopores with different diameters,according to one embodiment of the invention. Specifically, it showsI_(BL) (light) and I_(BH) (dark) values for a series of 25 nanoporeswith different diameters in the range 2.7-4.6 nm. In FIG. 10, I_(BH) andI_(BL) values are plotted as a function of d for 25 different nanoporesunder identical experimental conditions (400 bp DNA, 300 mV, 21° C.).Although pores with similar G values exhibit a variance in average I_(B)values, attributed to pore-to-pore variability, the values of I_(BH) andI_(BL) follow a trend, regularly increasing with d. The dashed line isthe theoretical I_(B)* curve based on Eq. 1 with a=2.2 nm, showingexcellent agreement with I_(BL), while clearly deviating from I_(BH).Notably, I_(BL) shows greater pore size dependence than I_(BH),especially for pores with d<3.1 nm, where I_(BL) begins to decreasesharply. The fractional blockage (I_(B)) for full dsDNA threading may beapproximated by a purely geometric expression (dashed line in FIG. 10):

$\begin{matrix}{{I_{B}^{*}(d)} = {1 - \frac{a^{2}}{d^{2}}}} & ( {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 1} )\end{matrix}$

where a=2.2 nm is the hydrodynamic cross-section of B-form dsDNA. Eq. 1does not involve any scaling factors or fitting parameters, allowing fordirect theoretical I_(B)* values compared with experimental I_(B)values. Referring back to FIG. 10, this estimation (dashed line)coincides well with experimental I_(BL) values, while clearly deviatingfrom the trend of I_(BH) values. The agreement for I_(BL) values, aswell as the dramatic change in relative populations with pore size,suggest that events in population I_(BH) may correspond to unsuccessfulthreading attempts, while events in population I_(BL) aretranslocations.

Further experimentation has indicated a correlation between thedwell-time dynamics and I_(B) values. FIG. 11A-C illustrate plots oftypical dwell-time distributions for different DNA lengths, according tovarious embodiments of the invention. Specifically, FIG. 11A-C presentdwell-time distributions for N=a) 400 bp, b) 2,000 bp and c) 10,000 bp,respectively. For each DNA length, >3,000 events have been collected andsorted according to their I_(B) population (see FIG. 9), where dark andlight grey dwell-time bins correspond to events in I_(BH) and I_(BL),respectively. The dwell-time histograms show several distinctcharacteristics. First, for all DNA lengths, events in I_(BH) (dark)have extremely short dwell-times (˜50 μs). Second, events in I_(BL)(light) display a more complex dwell-time distribution which are highlysensitive to the DNA length, with t_(d) values extending to several ms.Double-exponential fits (black curves) for each distribution in I_(BL)yields two timescales, denoted as t₁ and t₂. Finally, the t_(d) valuesfor events in I_(BL) (light) clearly exhibit a strong DNA lengthdependence, while events in I_(BH) (red) maintain a very weak lengthdependence.

Experimental evidence thus reveals: 1) Events in I_(BH) populationsdisplay extremely short, weakly length-dependent timescales, 2) there isa striking agreement between I_(B)* and measured I_(BL) values, 3)events in I_(BL) exhibit longer dwell-times, in addition to being lengthdependent. While not wishing to be bound by theory, the inventorsbelieve these combined findings support the hypothesis that events inI_(BH) correspond to DNA collisions involving unsuccessful threading,while events in I_(BL) are translocations. This is in accordance withfindings that for the protein pore α-HL, short (˜10 μs) and shallowevents are attributed to random collisions with the pore, while thelonger events are attributed to full translocations. In accordance withthe histograms in FIG. 9, the increasing proportion of events in I_(BL)with nanopore size reflects a significant increase in the translocationprobability and a corresponding decrease in non-translocatingcollisions.

In further reference to the dwell-time distributions of events in I_(BL)population (FIGS. 11A-C), distribution at dwell times longer than thepeak value may be approximated using decaying exponential functions.Although mono-exponential functions were found to inadequately describethe data, >99% of the dwell-time events in the distributions could bemodeled as a sum of two exponential functions, yielding two timescales,t₁ and t₂, with two corresponding amplitudes, a₁ and a₂ (see blackcurves in FIG. 11A-C). Based on these fits, characteristic timescalesfor three different DNA lengths are indicated, clearly showing stronglength dependence on both t₁ and t₂. The coexistence of two distinct,length-dependent timescales points to two translocation mechanisms, asdiscussed in the next section.

(2) Dependence of Translocation Dynamics on DNA Length, Temperature andNanopore Size

The dependence of translocation dynamics on DNA length, environmentaltemperature and nanopore size was experimentally examined FIGS. 12A-Billustrate log-log and semi-log plots of DNA translocation dynamics as afunction of DNA length, according to one embodiment of the invention. InFIG. 12A, translocation timescales t₁ and t₂, as well as the collisiontimescale t₀, as a function of the DNA length N are displayed. FIG. 12Aprovides a log-log plot of DNA translocation dynamics as a function ofDNA length measured at 21° C., 300 mV using a 4 nm pore. Threetimescales are identified: t₀ (open diamonds) attributed to collisionswith the pore, t₁ (circles) attributed to short translocations events,and t₂ (squares) attributed to long translocation events. As previouslynoted, t₀ exhibits an extremely weak length dependence, as shown by thedashed line. In contrast, the translocation timescales t₁ and t₂ exhibita strong dependence on N. Specifically, a crossover between two powerlaws was observed, where each power law was dominant in a different sizeregime: For N<3,500 bp, t₁˜N^(α) ¹ , where α₁=1.40±0.05, whereas forN>3,500, a steeper power law emerges, t₂˜N^(α) ² , where α₂=2.28±0.05.Quantitatively, this transition may be represented as a shift in therelative fraction of long to short events, defined byD_(t2)=a₂t₂/(a₁t₁+a₂t₂).

The inset of FIG. 12A shows a transition of the fraction of totaltranslocation events (D_(t2)). The FIG. 12A inset points to a gradualtransition from a t₁-dominated regime to a t₂-dominated regime atN≈3,500 bp, where both populations are nearly equal. For each DNAlength, solid markers are used to designate the dominant timescale. Forvery short DNA molecules (N≦150 bp), there is a significant overlapbetween the values of t₁ and t₀, practically setting a cutoff for thefastest resolvable translocation (˜30 μs).

FIG. 12B shows a semi-log plot of the dependence of I_(BL) on N,displaying the transition from N-independent to N-dependent regimes atN≈3,500 bp. The line is a visual aid demonstrating an approximate trend.FIG. 12B displays the dependence of I_(BL) on the DNA length. If onerelates I_(BL) solely to the geometric blockage imposed by the DNA, onewould expect that for biopolymers longer than the pore length (˜80 bp),I_(BL), will be independent of N. This is supported by the developeddata: For N=50 bp I_(BL)=0.8, while for 150≦N≦2,000 bp the inventorsfound that I_(BL)=0.65±0.05. However, for molecules longer than 2,000bp, the inventors found a regular decrease in I_(BL) with increasing Nwas observed. In other words, a greater fraction of ions is displacedfrom the pore and its vicinity during translocation of long DNAmolecules. This occurs near the transition from t₁- to t₂-dominatedregimes, implying a relationship between I_(BL) and the dwell times.

Furthermore, the roles of temperature (T) and the nanopore diameter (d)on the translocation dynamics have been experimentally evaluated. FIG.13 illustrates a semi-log plot of the temperature dependence of thetranslocation times of various DNA lengths, according to one embodimentof the invention. FIG. 13 presents values of the most dominant timescaleas a function of T for 400<N<20,000, where t₁ and t₂ values arerepresented with solid and open markers, respectively. The semi-log plotshows the temperature dependence of the translocation times t₁ (solidcircles) and t₂ (open circles) for a number of DNA lengths.

In all such cases, the t_(T) can be well approximated using exponentialfunctions. t₁ and t₂ exhibit exponential dependence on T (t˜e^(−T/T)*where T* is the characteristic slope). While t₁ values follow a singleexponential slope (T*=21.7±1.3 K), t₂ values exhibit considerably lowerT* values, ranging from 10.5±1.0 K for 3,500 bp to 5.0±1.0 K for 20,000bp. If the translocation times are dominated by hydrodynamic drag(either inside or outside the pore), one can expect the dynamics to begoverned by the fluid viscosity, which is well-approximated by anexponential function η(T)˜e^(−T/T) ^(η) in this temperature range.However, η(T) follows a temperature slope of T_(η)≈39.3±0.8 K, muchweaker than the temperature dependence observed for the presenttranslocation dynamics. For instance, if translocation were governed bypure viscous drag, a 39 K temperature decrease would result in a modestincrease of the translocation times (a factor of e). In contrast, thesame temperature drop will increase translocation times by roughly e²for t₁, and >e⁴ for t₂. This finding indicates that viscous drag alonecannot account for the translocation dynamics.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, the inventors believe that thestrong exponential temperature dependence of the translocation dynamics,as well as the transition from t₁ to t₂ at N≈3,500 bp, suggest thatinteractions play a dominant role in this process. Specifically, thisobserved transition is likely to result from interactions of DNA withthe membrane surface, in addition to interactions inside the pore. Inorder to probe the relative contribution of these two effects, theinventors examined the translocation dynamics as a function of nanoporesize, using a relatively stiff DNA molecule for this study in order toprobe interactions inside the pore while minimizing interactions withthe outer membrane surface (400 bp, or ˜1.3 b, where b is the Kuhnlength).

FIG. 14 displays semi-log plots of t₁ and t₂ as a function of d. Thefigure displays the semi log plots of t₁ (solid circles) and t₂ (opencircles) for 400 bp DNA as a function of the nanopore diameter in therange 2.7-5 nm. Experimental results show that decreasing the nanoporesize by ˜2 nm resulted in an order of magnitude increase of both t₁ andt₂. As with the aforementioned temperature dependence studies, theseobservations are believed to rule out Stokes drag as the dominant factorgoverning the translocation dynamics.

FIGS. 15 A-C illustrate schematic representations of proposedmechanisms, according to various embodiments of the invention. Threetimescales and typical corresponding traces are shown. The translocationdynamics will depend upon the configuration of the biopolymers at theinitial moment of translocation, leading to a mixture of short and longevents in the translocation dwell time distributions, which correspondto loosely coiled and highly entangled DNA molecules. FIG. 15Aillustrates a schematic representation of a molecular collision at timet₀. FIG. 15B illustrates a schematic representation of DNA translocationfor a short molecule at time t₁ with 1≈b, where b is the Kuhn length.FIG. 15C illustrates a schematic representation of DNA translocation fora long molecule at time t₂ with 1>>b, where b is the Kuhn length.

(3) Materials and Methods

Linear, dsDNA fragments in the length range 50 <N<20,000 bp were used inthese experiments. The 400 bp DNA fragment was prepared by polymerasechain reaction (PCR) from human genomic DNA using highly specificprimers, further purified by: 1) cutting the band from a polyacrylamidegel, 2) running a second PCR amplification step, 3) purification using aPCR purification kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). Before eachnanopore experiment, a DNA solution was heated to 70° C. for 10 min andcooled to room temperature.

Nanopores of diameters 2-5 nm were fabricated in 25-30 nm thick,low-stress silicon nitride (SiN) windows (25 μm×25 μm) supported by a Sichip (Protochips Inc., Raleigh, N.C.) using a focused electron beam.Nanopore chips were cleaned and assembled on a custom-designed cellunder controlled atmosphere. Following the addition of degassed andfiltered 1 M KCl electrolyte (buffered with 10 mM Tris-HCl to pH 8.5),the nanopore cell was placed in a custom-designed controlled-temperaturechamber (±0.1° C.), which allows for rapid thermal equilibration (<5min) and acts as a primary electromagnetic shield. Ag/AgCl electrodeswere immersed into each chamber of the cell and connected to an Axon200B headstage. All measurements were taken inside a dark Faraday cage.DNA was introduced to the cis chamber, and a positive voltage of 300 mVwas applied to the trans chamber in all experiments.

DNA translocations were recorded using custom LabVIEW code, permittingeither continuous or triggered storage of ion current blockade events.Current signals were digitized at 16-bit resolution with a samplingfrequency of 250 kHz, and further low-pass filtered at 70-100 kHz usingan analog 4-pole Butterworth filter. To increase translocationthroughput, Dynamic Voltage Control (DVC) was used, allowing the appliedvoltage to be automatically reversed upon prolonged pore blockage, i.e.,if the pore is in blocked state over a set time period (1 s). (Fordetails on the experimental apparatus, see: Bates M, Burns M, Meller A(2003) Dynamics of DNA molecules in a membrane channel probed by activecontrol techniques. Biophysics J 84:2366-2372, herein incorporated byreference in its entirety.) While the occurrence of these blocks is rare(<0.1%), the auto-clear function efficiently “pushes back” theobstructing molecule back to the cis chamber within ˜1 s, lowering thelikelihood of irreversible pore blocks and permitting data collectionover hours or days. Event analysis was carried out using custom LabVIEWcode, and statistical analysis was performed using Igor Pro(Wavemetrics, Portland, Oreg.).

Example #2 Articulating Solid-State Nanopores with Proteins

Various solid-state nanopore coating schemes, used in order to embedsingle α-hemolysin (α-HL) channels inside engineered solid-statenanopores, have been investigated. α-hemolysin is well-known in the artas a β-pore forming dimorphic proteins that exist as soluble monomersand then assembles with other monomers to form multimeric assembliesthat constitute the pore. Seven α-Hemolysin monomers come together tocreate this pore. Selected nanopore coating schemes can be used to affixα-hemolysin monomers on the surface of the aperture comprising thenanopore.

FIG. 16 illustrates schematic representations of a silicon nitride (SiN)solid-state nanopore coated with a self-assembled monolayer, forattachment of a α-Hemolysin channel, according to one embodiment of theinvention. FIG. 16 provides a scheme of a silicon nitride (SiN)solid-state nanopore (gray) coated with a self-assembled monolayer(dark), for attachment of a α-Hemolysin channel (light). The organiccoating can either be immobilized by chemically reacting with thechannel (permanent immobilization) or physical interaction (temporaryimmobilization), depending on the terminal group of the organic coatingand the channel variant.

At present, experimental success has been achieved with selected typesof coatings. Specifically, embedding α-HL inside a 10 nm pore coatedwith a PEG monolayer (methoxyethylene glycol-terminated silane) has beenachieved. After ex situ nanopore coating, the nanopore chip wasassembled inside a chamber with 1M KCl on both sides of the nanopore,and α-HL was added to the cis chamber. After 1-2 minutes, theconductance of the pore markedly dropped, indicating pore obstruction.Current-voltage curves were then recorded to verify that the obstructionis an embedded α-HL channel.

FIGS. 17 A-B illustrate plots of current-voltage curves for α-HLembedded in a PEG-coated solid-state nanopore according to variousembodiments of the invention as compared to a lipid-embedded α-HLchannel. FIG. 17A shows three current-voltage curves of α-HL embedded ina PEG-coated 10 nm solid-state nanopore (1M KCl, 21° C.). An asymmetricconductance characteristic of a lipid-embedded α-HL channel may be seenwith reference to FIG. 17A. FIG. 17B shows a current-voltage curve of alipid-embedded α-HL channel (1M KCl, 21° C.). These results may bereproduced using different coatings providing preliminary measurementsto establish the embedded-nanopore characteristics.

Other Embodiments

In view of the wide variety of embodiments to which the principles ofthe present invention can be applied, it should be understood that theillustrated embodiments are exemplary only, and should not be taken aslimiting the scope of the present invention. Other embodiments of coatednanopores include: species-selective membranes using chemically modifiedarrays, immobilization of inorganic particles, and others.

Other aspects, modifications, and embodiments are within the scope ofthe following claims. The invention may be embodied in other specificforms without departing from the essential characteristics thereof. Thepresent embodiments are therefore considered to be illustrative and notrestrictive.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The entire contents of each of the citations referenced above in theapplication are herein incorporated by reference.

1. A coated nanopore comprising: a solid-state insulating membranehaving a thickness between approximately 5 nanometers and approximately100 nanometers, the membrane having an aperture with at least onesurface; and a chemical coating disposed on the surface of the aperture;wherein the chemical coating modifies at least one surfacecharacteristic of the aperture.
 2. The coated nanopore of claim 1,wherein the solid state insulating membrane comprises a silicon nitridematerial.
 3. The coated nanopore of claim 1, wherein the chemicalcoating disposed on the surface of the aperture comprises a layersubstantially conformal to the surface of the aperture.
 4. The coatednanopore of claim 3, the chemical coating having a selected thicknessand distribution.
 5. The coated nanopore of claim 4, wherein theselected thickness is less than or equal to approximately 2.5nanometers.
 6. The coated nanopore of claim 1, wherein the surfacecharacteristic includes at least one of concavity, surface charge,polarity, pH sensitivity, hydrophobicity, and chemical functionality. 7.The coated nanopore of claim 1, wherein the chemical coating comprisesan organic monolayer coating.
 8. The coated nanopore of claim 1, whereinthe chemical coating comprises one of an epoxy, a methoxyethyleneglycol, an amine, a carboxylic acid, and an aldehyde.
 9. The coatednanopore of claim 1, wherein the chemical coating comprises amethoxyethelyne glycol-terminated silane monolayer.
 10. The coatednanopore of claim 9, wherein the organic monolayer coating comprises areactive monolayer forming covalent bonds with the surface of theaperture.
 11. The coated nanopore of claim 1, wherein the chemicalcoating comprises a substantially uniform layer of chain moleculesincluding organosilanes.
 12. An electrically-addressable nanopore arraycomprising: a solid-state insulating membrane having a thickness betweenapproximately 5 nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers; a pluralityof nanopores in the membrane, each nanopore having a surface; aplurality of electrodes disposed adjacent to the plurality of nanopores;and a chemical coating disposed on the surface of each nanopore, thechemical coating modifying a surface characteristic of the nanopore;wherein the plurality of electrodes selectively address each nanopore inthe array to detect changes in electrical stimulus at each nanopore inthe array.
 13. The nanopore array of claim 12, wherein the chemicalcoating disposed on the surface of each nanopore is selected to detections.
 14. An optically-addressable nanopore array comprising: asolid-state insulating membrane having a thickness between approximately5 nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers; a plurality of nanoporesin the membrane, each nanopore having a surface; a plurality ofelectrodes disposed adjacent to the plurality of nanopores; and achemical coating disposed on the surface of each nanopore, the chemicalcoating modifying a surface characteristic of the nanopore; wherein theplurality of optical sensors selectively address each nanopore in thearray to detect energy emission variations at each nanopore in thearray.
 15. The nanopore array of claim 14, wherein the chemical coatingdisposed on the surface of each nanopore comprises a pH-sensitive dyecomprising a fluorophore.
 16. A method of making a coated solid-statenanopore comprising: fabricating a nanoscale aperture in a solid-statesubstrate; cleaning a surface of the aperture; chemically modifying thesurface of the aperture to fabricate a chemical coating, the chemicalcoating substantially conformally disposed on the surface; wherein thecoated solid-state nanopore is fabricated with a chemical coating of aselected composition and distribution.
 17. The method of claim 16,wherein chemically modifying the surface of the aperture comprises asequence of chemical coating steps.
 18. The method of claim 17, whereinthe sequence of chemical coating steps includes for each coating step,immersing in solution, drying, and heating the solid-state substrate.19. The method of claim 18, wherein each coating step comprises an exsitu chemical process.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the sequenceof chemical coating steps includes for each coating step exposing theaperture to a sequence of chemical solutions, each chemical solution inthe sequence having a selected composition.
 21. The method of claim 16,wherein chemically modifying the surface of the aperture comprises an insitu coating process wherein variations in current adjacent to theaperture are monitored while the aperture surface is chemicallymodified.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the nanoscale aperturecomprises an aperture having a diameter less than or equal toapproximately 10 nanometers.
 23. The method of claim 16, whereincleaning the surface of the aperture comprises treating the surface witha piranha solution.
 24. The method of claim 16, further comprisingcharacterizing the coating to detect the selected concentration anddistribution.
 25. The method of claim 16, wherein chemically modifyingthe surface comprises coating with at least one of epoxy,methoxyethylene glycol, amine, carboxylic acid, and aldehyde.
 26. Themethod of claim 16, wherein chemically modifying the surface comprisescoating with at least one of glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane,methoxyethoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,adipoyl chloride, 1,4-diaminobutane, and glutaraldehyde.
 27. A methodfor characterizing an analyte comprising: forming a nanopore in asolid-state membrane having a thickness between approximately 5nanometers and approximately 100 nanometers; chemically modifying asurface of a nanopore; receiving the analyte through the nanopore;detecting variations in current adjacent to the nanopore, wherein thevariations in current correspond to interactions between the analyte andnanopore surface.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein chemicallymodifying the surface of the nanopore comprises an in situ coatingprocess wherein variations in current adjacent to the nanopore aremonitored while the aperture surface is chemically modified.
 29. Themethod of claim 27, wherein chemically modifying the surface of thenanopore comprises tuning the interaction between the analyte and thenanopore.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein chemically modifying thesurface of the nanopore comprises coating the nanopore with asubstantially uniform layer of short chain molecules includingorganosilanes.
 31. The method of claim 27, wherein the analyte comprisesa biopolymer.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the biopolymercomprises one of single-stranded DNA, double-stranded DNA, RNA, and anucleic acid polypeptide.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein chemicallymodifying the surface of the nanopore comprises providing a chemicalcoating to substantially slow DNA translocation.
 34. The method of claim32, wherein chemically modifying the surface of the nanopore comprisesproviding a chemical coating to substantially prevent sticking betweenthe biopolymer and the surface of the nanopore.
 35. The method of claim32, wherein the nanopore dimensions are selected to substantially slowDNA translocation.
 36. The method of claim 27, wherein detectingvariations in current comprises detecting variations in local ioncurrent with electrodes disposed adjacent to the nanopore.
 37. Themethod of claim 36, wherein detecting variations in local ion currentcomprises detecting an open nanopore current and a blocked nanoporecurrent, the blocked nanopore current varying with respect toanalyte-coated nanopore interaction characteristics.
 38. The method ofclaim 37, wherein the analyte comprises a DNA and the blocked nanoporecurrent varies with respect to DNA length.
 39. A method of identifying abiomolecule, comprising: modifying a surface of a nanopore with achemical coating; immobilizing the biomolecule on the surface of thenanopore; exposing the nanopore to a chemical environment; detectingvariations in current adjacent to the nanopore, wherein the variationsin current correspond to interactions between the biomolecule and thechemical environment and wherein selected interactions identify thebiomolecule.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein chemically modifyingthe surface of the nanopore comprises an in situ coating process whereinvariations in current adjacent to the nanopore are monitored while theaperture surface is chemically modified.
 41. The method of claim 39,wherein immobilizing the biomolecule comprises chemically grafting themolecule in a central portion of the nanopore.
 42. The method of claim41, wherein modifying the surface with the chemical coating comprisesproviding a glutaraldehyde-functionalized nanopore.
 43. The method ofclaim 39, wherein modifying the surface with the chemical coatingcomprises providing an organic monolayer coating.
 44. The method ofclaim 43, wherein the organic monolayer coating comprises a reactivemonolayer forming covalent bonds with the surface of the aperture. 45.The method of claim 39, wherein exposing the nanopore to a chemicalenvironment includes providing a chemical gradient having a firstchemical environment on a first side of the nanopore and a secondchemical environment on a second side of the nanopore.
 46. The method ofclaim 45, wherein immobilizing the biomolecule comprises providing aselective transport path between the first and second chemicalenvironments.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the molecule comprisesa beta-pore forming protein including a single α-hemolysin channel an aα-hemolysin channel mutant; and wherein the chemical coating comprises amethoxyethelyne glycol-terminated silane monolayer.
 48. The method ofclaim 39, wherein the chemical coating comprises an aldehyde reactiveterminal layer.
 49. A method of sensing a chemical environmentalcomprising: forming a nanopore in a solid-state membrane, the membranehaving an thickness between approximately 5 nanometers and approximately100 nanometers; chemically modifying a surface of the nanopore; exposingthe nanopore to a chemical environment; applying a voltage to at least aportion of the chemical environment in proximity to the membrane; andoptically probing the membrane to detect energy emission variations,wherein energy emission variations correspond to interactions betweenthe chemical environment and the surface of the nanopore.
 50. The methodof claim 49, wherein chemically modifying the surface of the nanoporecomprises coating the surface with a pH-sensitive dye.
 51. The method ofclaim 50, wherein the pH-sensitive dye comprises one of a fluorophoreand a protein modulating group.
 52. The method of claim 51, furthercomprising detecting variations in florescent intensity, whereinvariations in florescent intensity correspond to variations in thechemical environment.
 53. The method of claim 49, wherein exposing thenanopore to a chemical environment comprises providing a chemicalgradient having a first chemical environment on a first side of themembrane and a second chemical environment on a second side of themembrane.
 54. A method of sensing a chemical environmental comprising:forming a nanopore in a solid-state membrane, the membrane having anthickness between approximately 5 nanometers and approximately 100nanometers; chemically modifying a surface of the nanopore; exposing thenanopore to a chemical environment; applying a voltage to at least aportion of the chemical environment in proximity to the membrane; anddetecting variations in current adjacent to the nanopore, wherein thevariations in current correspond to interactions between the chemicalenvironment and nanopore surface.
 55. The method of claim 54, whereinchemically modifying the surface of the nanopore comprises coating thesurface with a pH-sensitive molecule.
 56. The method of claim 54,wherein exposing the nanopore to a chemical environment comprisesproviding a chemical gradient having a first chemical environment on afirst side of the membrane and a second chemical environment on a secondside of the membrane.
 57. The method of claim 54, wherein chemicallymodifying the surface of the nanopore comprises coating the surface witha selected ion-sensitive compound.